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14 June 2024
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Featured FRI Magazine article: Stretching and advancing handlines in structural firefighting 2 by Colin Deiner (FRI Vol 2 no 4)
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https://www.frimedia.org/uploads/1/2/2/7/122743954/vol2no4_final_lr.pdf
This week’s featured Fire and Rescue International magazine article is: Stretching and advancing handlines in structural firefighting 2 written by Colin Deiner (FRI Vol 2 no 4). We will be sharing more technical/research/tactical articles from Fire and Rescue International magazine on a weekly basis with our readers to assist in technology transfer. This will hopefully create an increased awareness, providing you with hands-on advice and guidance. All our magazines are available free of charge in PDF format on our website and online at ISSUU. We also provide all technical articles as a free download in our article archive on our website.
Stretching and advancing handlines in structural firefighting 2
By Colin Deiner, Chief Director, Disaster management and Fire Brigade Services, Western Cape Government
Last month I dealt with the science of deploying handlines during structural firefighting operations. This month I will attempt to address the safe and effective advancement of that line into a fire structure and ultimately to the seat of the fire.
Standard response
As I mentioned in the previous article, the standard response to a structural fire in this country is one officer, one engineer (driver/operator) and two fire fighters. In some cases the response is limited to three persons; one engineer with the officer assisting the nozzle man in advancing the attack line. For many fire services the latter scenario is the reality and although not ideal, can be done with sufficient planning. A two-crew engine company should never be considered. It is dangerous and will not allow you to achieve even the most basic of tasks effectively.
So let us consider that we have an engine company crew of four (or more). What is expected of each member? The engineer is the pump operator and needs to ensure a consistent flow of water while at the same time continuously evaluating the pump performance and water source. This is normally an experienced fire fighter who has had his/her fair share of schlepping hose and would generally be able to recognise any changes in the pressure on the attack line, by anticipating what the nozzle team is doing at that particular point in time. In a scenario where a three-man engine company is working a fire and the officer is assisting the nozzle man with the fire attack, the engineer may be relied on to provide the bigger picture. The main point here is to have good radio communication and to ensure that the nozzle team is kept up to date with prevailing conditions. Hopefully, there will be more units on scene and this function can be escalated to a sector commander or the incident command staff member, depending on the level of command deployed at the incident.
Two crew members must be allocated to the nozzle team. The first fire fighter is designated the ‘nozzle fire fighter’ and is responsible for directing the water stream onto the seat of the fire. The second fire fighter (backup fire fighter) is responsible for ensuring sufficient movement of the hose for easy advancing of the line and resisting the nozzle reaction thereby enabling the nozzle fire fighter to easily manage it.
If you are fortunate enough to have a third fire fighter available, he/she can be used in a ‘door’ position whereby he/she facilitates a smooth advance by feeding hose to the nozzle team.
First-in officer
The tendency of certain modern day fire services to remove all staff with the rank equivalent of station commander (or higher) from shift work and deploy them to work standard office hours, is problematic and should not be encouraged. This results in the first responding units to incidents being commanded by fairly junior personnel, who do not yet have the experience to make the crucial decisions needed in the first few minutes of a potentially devastating fire. The first arriving officers would generally respond from their homes at their own discretion and seldom do the two arrive at the scene simultaneously. This has the added complication of junior officers gaining more operational experience over the years than the people they have to report to.
Granted that a fair number of services employing this practice have ensured that their first responding sub-officers are adequately capacitated to make these decisions.
The company officer is generally a working officer who might be required to assist with the stretching and advancing of the handline. This will obviously detract from his ability to perform a ‘hands-off’ command role. Should your standard operating procedure (SOP) include a two engine response, the first arriving officer should only concern him-/herself with a quick initial exterior size-up of the fire structure (while the handline is being stretched) and prevailing conditions and, if possible, try to get a picture of the interior of the structure. He/she should then communicate this information to the next arriving officer who should assume the position of incident commander and then further decide on the strategy to be employed. The first-in officer can then enter the structure as part of the hose team and either assist with the movement of the attack line or supervise the interior attack.
In a situation where persons may be trapped, all efforts should be focussed on search and rescue. In this case the attack line should be rapidly advanced in order to protect the search and rescue crew. Having only the nozzle team and an officer available to do this will be extremely difficult and dangerous. The handline should at all times be available to protect the search and rescue team and in will, in many cases, have to actually perform the rescue themselves. The obvious solution would be a multi-alarm response if the person reporting the incident indicates possible entrapment, if entrapment is only confirmed upon arrival (and it is a single engine response) backup must be called for immediately.
Should the initial response include a ladder company, the engine company officer should use the ladder crew to provide information on the location of the fire. In a multi-storey apartment complex, he/she should try to get a good idea of the layout of the apartment that is on fire, to assist in determining the positioning of the attack teams and length of hose line required. It might also be advisable to go to the apartment directly below the fire floor to get an idea of the number of doors, left- and right turns, distance to the door etc.
Also, never underestimate the information that can be gleaned from occupants, neighbours, complex supervisors and maintenance staff. Try to have someone interview them as soon time allows.
The nozzle team
The fire fighter assigned to the nozzle (nozzle fire fighter) will direct the pace and direction of the attack line in his/her sector and will make many decisions, which might not always be communicated to the incident command, but will have an impact on the eventual success (or failure) of the operation. If no officer is assigned to oversee the interior attack, the responsibility for managing the attack line advance should become that of the nozzle fire fighter. This person should be experienced and understand the doctrine of aggressive interior fire attack. The nozzle fire fighter should be supplied with a tactical radio to communicate with the operations commander, pump operator and ladder company crew.
The nozzle fire fighter must be in control of the handline at all times and ensure that the nozzle team never enters a fire room without a charged line. He/she should also determine the position to where they should retreat in the event of a hose replacement or extension.
Fire streams
When performing an interior attack, hose teams should as far as possible employ solid streams rather than fog streams. A solid stream provides greater reach and penetration and is less disruptive to the thermal balance than fog streams. This will enable greater visibility, produce less steam and would be less likely to push the fire. A combination nozzle will have the advantage of facilitating rapid hydro-ventilation that will enable the nozzle team to see the fire sooner but once this has been achieved, you should immediately change to a solid stream.
As soon as the nozzle team encounters the fire, the process of thermal balancing should start that should then enable the team to approach the fire in relative safety. The stream should be directed toward the ceiling using a Z-pattern or anti-clockwise motion.
Once control over the fire has been established, the angle of the nozzle can be reduced and the smouldering solid fuels can be cooled. At a large fire that has started to roll across the ceiling, the nozzle should be directed upwards to enable the stream to deflect off the ceiling and upper part of the walls, thereby penetrating the thermal column of the fire. As the temperature of the involved area reduces, the nozzle teams should be able to advance on the seat of the fire. Care should, however, be taken to control the speed of the advance and not have the nozzle teams move too close to the water cascading off the roof. This can result in severe injuries to firefighters due to the boiling water and steam dropping onto them.
As a nozzle team advances on a fire, it is important to present as small a target as possible to any possible threats that may be present in the fire area. Moving low and close to the floor will not only achieve this but also keep them under the hot air that will still be present. As the team advances, they should periodically sweep the floor directly in front of them with the stream. This will remove any hot or burning debris in their way and also ‘sound out’ the floor for any indication of weaknesses or holes that may have developed.
The team might have to resort to advancing on a fire whilst on their knees. Caution should be taken to avoid any nails or other sharp objects that could penetrate bunker gear and cause serious injury.
The importance of adequate visibility can never be overstressed. Teams must be careful not to advance into an area (or onto a surface) they cannot see. Compromised structural elements, host surfaces and other foreign objects could severely injure fire fighters in these areas and shift the entire focus of the operation. Usually with tragic results.
Backup
The backup fire fighter must work in unison with the nozzle fire fighter and ensure an effective advance of the attack line. It is important that both fire fighters understand one another’s way of working. The only way this can be achieved is if they train together often in as realistic an environment as you can find. Speak to someone who has some old marine containers that they want to get rid of and get your hose teams to practice entry, thermal balancing and advancing handlines. This is a relatively inexpensive way of making sure they understand what they will be up against next time the fire bells drop.
The backup firefighter needs to ensure that the last metre of hose is kept in as straight a line with the fire as possible. To achieve this, the backup fire fighter should always try to exaggerate the movement of the nozzle to twice the angle achieved by the nozzle fire fighter.
As the nozzle fire fighter will be intensely focussed on directing the water stream to its intended spot, the backup fire fighter is in a great position to monitor the overall situation and alert the nozzle fire fighter to any hazards or changes in the fire behaviour or structural conditions. The two crew members must try to maintain physical contact as much as possible in order to transfer critical information when necessary.
The backup fire fighter may at times have to move a short way back down the line to pull hose around any obstructions and ensure its unhindered movement. At this time the nozzle fire fighter will have to manage all hose reactions alone. If your department has a low manning level and this practice becomes the norm, it would make sense to consider the implementation of solid stream tips that produce less reaction than fog nozzles.
For services having a five-crew response, a third fire fighter can be placed at the entrance to the fire room and ensure that sufficient hose is provided to the nozzle team The door fire fighter will not normally have a good view of the nozzle team and should therefore provide enough hose into the structure to form a bow in the line. The bow represents the amount of slack that the nozzle team will be able to drag without too much effort as they move forward. The bow method should be employed even if a third fire fighter is not available and can be achieved by making a loop in the line shortly before it is charged. If the fire becomes a prolonged incident and more staff becomes available, it would be advisable to position fire fighters at positions where hose lines could snag or become damaged and have them assist with the unhindered movement of the attack teams.
Physical fitness
Sprinters don’t train the same way that marathon runners do. For every physical activity nowadays there is a specific training programme. Fire fighters who will often have to serve as attack teams need to train their bodies to adapt to the strain placed on them by this type of work. During the physically demanding task of dragging a fire hose through a burning structure, nozzle teams must use the opportunity to take very brief breaks whenever possible. They should also train to endure the stress of anaerobic activities and intersperse this with short rests in between. This will quickly recover the heart rate and allow muscles to recover. Adequate hydration is also crucial and staff on scene must be monitored for dehydration and exhaustion at all times.
Safety
Fire fighter safety should always be the first consideration before any interior crews are committed to a fire. In previous articles I have spoken at length about the need for effective and safe ventilation. Cooperation between the ventilation crew and the nozzle team is critical. If ventilation is attempted before an attack line is charged and ready, a very real possibility for rapid fire growth and an early flashover exists. If the ventilation is effected too long after the entry into the fire room is made, the nozzle team could face great difficulty in advancing the attack line and could be at the risk of injury.
Keeping doors open once entry has been achieved might sound simple but with everything going on in these areas, could be one of your biggest headaches. A closed door can sometimes act as a hose clamp and obstruct the flow of water when you least expect it. For this reason, every member of the attack team should carry a few door chocks with them that they will easily be able to wedge into the opening of a door hinge to ensure it stays open.
Also ensure that doorways and passages are, as far as possible, kept clear and unobstructed. This doesn’t only allow for safe movement but also permits the inflow of fresh air to replace the products of combustion being displaced by the water streams.
At all times nozzle teams must communicate their position in the building to the incident command and this must be noted. The monitoring of remaining air in your breathing apparatus will be your primary indicator of how far you can advance into the structure. Respect what your equipment can do and react early and promptly to any warnings that may ensue.
Remember: Don’t let your inclination to gamble override your ability to run.
Finally
This series of articles has focussed mainly on the rapid and effective deployment of fire hose into (mainly) residential structures. The objective is to respond to and prevent damage to people’s homes. The people we serve. When responding to a fire we normally encounter the owners or residents of the building involved in the fire. They expect us to be on top of our game and to put the fire out with as little damage to their property as possible. Therefore, in our training, our planning and our general approach to our job, we should concern ourselves primarily with this.
This week’s featured Fire and Rescue International magazine article is: Stretching and advancing handlines in structural firefighting 2 written by Colin Deiner (FRI Vol 2 no 4). We will be sharing more technical/research/tactical articles from Fire and Rescue International magazine on a weekly basis with our readers to assist in technology transfer. This will hopefully create an increased awareness, providing you with hands-on advice and guidance. All our magazines are available free of charge in PDF format on our website and online at ISSUU. We also provide all technical articles as a free download in our article archive on our website.
Stretching and advancing handlines in structural firefighting 2
By Colin Deiner, Chief Director, Disaster management and Fire Brigade Services, Western Cape Government
Last month I dealt with the science of deploying handlines during structural firefighting operations. This month I will attempt to address the safe and effective advancement of that line into a fire structure and ultimately to the seat of the fire.
Standard response
As I mentioned in the previous article, the standard response to a structural fire in this country is one officer, one engineer (driver/operator) and two fire fighters. In some cases the response is limited to three persons; one engineer with the officer assisting the nozzle man in advancing the attack line. For many fire services the latter scenario is the reality and although not ideal, can be done with sufficient planning. A two-crew engine company should never be considered. It is dangerous and will not allow you to achieve even the most basic of tasks effectively.
So let us consider that we have an engine company crew of four (or more). What is expected of each member? The engineer is the pump operator and needs to ensure a consistent flow of water while at the same time continuously evaluating the pump performance and water source. This is normally an experienced fire fighter who has had his/her fair share of schlepping hose and would generally be able to recognise any changes in the pressure on the attack line, by anticipating what the nozzle team is doing at that particular point in time. In a scenario where a three-man engine company is working a fire and the officer is assisting the nozzle man with the fire attack, the engineer may be relied on to provide the bigger picture. The main point here is to have good radio communication and to ensure that the nozzle team is kept up to date with prevailing conditions. Hopefully, there will be more units on scene and this function can be escalated to a sector commander or the incident command staff member, depending on the level of command deployed at the incident.
Two crew members must be allocated to the nozzle team. The first fire fighter is designated the ‘nozzle fire fighter’ and is responsible for directing the water stream onto the seat of the fire. The second fire fighter (backup fire fighter) is responsible for ensuring sufficient movement of the hose for easy advancing of the line and resisting the nozzle reaction thereby enabling the nozzle fire fighter to easily manage it.
If you are fortunate enough to have a third fire fighter available, he/she can be used in a ‘door’ position whereby he/she facilitates a smooth advance by feeding hose to the nozzle team.
First-in officer
The tendency of certain modern day fire services to remove all staff with the rank equivalent of station commander (or higher) from shift work and deploy them to work standard office hours, is problematic and should not be encouraged. This results in the first responding units to incidents being commanded by fairly junior personnel, who do not yet have the experience to make the crucial decisions needed in the first few minutes of a potentially devastating fire. The first arriving officers would generally respond from their homes at their own discretion and seldom do the two arrive at the scene simultaneously. This has the added complication of junior officers gaining more operational experience over the years than the people they have to report to.
Granted that a fair number of services employing this practice have ensured that their first responding sub-officers are adequately capacitated to make these decisions.
The company officer is generally a working officer who might be required to assist with the stretching and advancing of the handline. This will obviously detract from his ability to perform a ‘hands-off’ command role. Should your standard operating procedure (SOP) include a two engine response, the first arriving officer should only concern him-/herself with a quick initial exterior size-up of the fire structure (while the handline is being stretched) and prevailing conditions and, if possible, try to get a picture of the interior of the structure. He/she should then communicate this information to the next arriving officer who should assume the position of incident commander and then further decide on the strategy to be employed. The first-in officer can then enter the structure as part of the hose team and either assist with the movement of the attack line or supervise the interior attack.
In a situation where persons may be trapped, all efforts should be focussed on search and rescue. In this case the attack line should be rapidly advanced in order to protect the search and rescue crew. Having only the nozzle team and an officer available to do this will be extremely difficult and dangerous. The handline should at all times be available to protect the search and rescue team and in will, in many cases, have to actually perform the rescue themselves. The obvious solution would be a multi-alarm response if the person reporting the incident indicates possible entrapment, if entrapment is only confirmed upon arrival (and it is a single engine response) backup must be called for immediately.
Should the initial response include a ladder company, the engine company officer should use the ladder crew to provide information on the location of the fire. In a multi-storey apartment complex, he/she should try to get a good idea of the layout of the apartment that is on fire, to assist in determining the positioning of the attack teams and length of hose line required. It might also be advisable to go to the apartment directly below the fire floor to get an idea of the number of doors, left- and right turns, distance to the door etc.
Also, never underestimate the information that can be gleaned from occupants, neighbours, complex supervisors and maintenance staff. Try to have someone interview them as soon time allows.
The nozzle team
The fire fighter assigned to the nozzle (nozzle fire fighter) will direct the pace and direction of the attack line in his/her sector and will make many decisions, which might not always be communicated to the incident command, but will have an impact on the eventual success (or failure) of the operation. If no officer is assigned to oversee the interior attack, the responsibility for managing the attack line advance should become that of the nozzle fire fighter. This person should be experienced and understand the doctrine of aggressive interior fire attack. The nozzle fire fighter should be supplied with a tactical radio to communicate with the operations commander, pump operator and ladder company crew.
The nozzle fire fighter must be in control of the handline at all times and ensure that the nozzle team never enters a fire room without a charged line. He/she should also determine the position to where they should retreat in the event of a hose replacement or extension.
Fire streams
When performing an interior attack, hose teams should as far as possible employ solid streams rather than fog streams. A solid stream provides greater reach and penetration and is less disruptive to the thermal balance than fog streams. This will enable greater visibility, produce less steam and would be less likely to push the fire. A combination nozzle will have the advantage of facilitating rapid hydro-ventilation that will enable the nozzle team to see the fire sooner but once this has been achieved, you should immediately change to a solid stream.
As soon as the nozzle team encounters the fire, the process of thermal balancing should start that should then enable the team to approach the fire in relative safety. The stream should be directed toward the ceiling using a Z-pattern or anti-clockwise motion.
Once control over the fire has been established, the angle of the nozzle can be reduced and the smouldering solid fuels can be cooled. At a large fire that has started to roll across the ceiling, the nozzle should be directed upwards to enable the stream to deflect off the ceiling and upper part of the walls, thereby penetrating the thermal column of the fire. As the temperature of the involved area reduces, the nozzle teams should be able to advance on the seat of the fire. Care should, however, be taken to control the speed of the advance and not have the nozzle teams move too close to the water cascading off the roof. This can result in severe injuries to firefighters due to the boiling water and steam dropping onto them.
As a nozzle team advances on a fire, it is important to present as small a target as possible to any possible threats that may be present in the fire area. Moving low and close to the floor will not only achieve this but also keep them under the hot air that will still be present. As the team advances, they should periodically sweep the floor directly in front of them with the stream. This will remove any hot or burning debris in their way and also ‘sound out’ the floor for any indication of weaknesses or holes that may have developed.
The team might have to resort to advancing on a fire whilst on their knees. Caution should be taken to avoid any nails or other sharp objects that could penetrate bunker gear and cause serious injury.
The importance of adequate visibility can never be overstressed. Teams must be careful not to advance into an area (or onto a surface) they cannot see. Compromised structural elements, host surfaces and other foreign objects could severely injure fire fighters in these areas and shift the entire focus of the operation. Usually with tragic results.
Backup
The backup fire fighter must work in unison with the nozzle fire fighter and ensure an effective advance of the attack line. It is important that both fire fighters understand one another’s way of working. The only way this can be achieved is if they train together often in as realistic an environment as you can find. Speak to someone who has some old marine containers that they want to get rid of and get your hose teams to practice entry, thermal balancing and advancing handlines. This is a relatively inexpensive way of making sure they understand what they will be up against next time the fire bells drop.
The backup firefighter needs to ensure that the last metre of hose is kept in as straight a line with the fire as possible. To achieve this, the backup fire fighter should always try to exaggerate the movement of the nozzle to twice the angle achieved by the nozzle fire fighter.
As the nozzle fire fighter will be intensely focussed on directing the water stream to its intended spot, the backup fire fighter is in a great position to monitor the overall situation and alert the nozzle fire fighter to any hazards or changes in the fire behaviour or structural conditions. The two crew members must try to maintain physical contact as much as possible in order to transfer critical information when necessary.
The backup fire fighter may at times have to move a short way back down the line to pull hose around any obstructions and ensure its unhindered movement. At this time the nozzle fire fighter will have to manage all hose reactions alone. If your department has a low manning level and this practice becomes the norm, it would make sense to consider the implementation of solid stream tips that produce less reaction than fog nozzles.
For services having a five-crew response, a third fire fighter can be placed at the entrance to the fire room and ensure that sufficient hose is provided to the nozzle team The door fire fighter will not normally have a good view of the nozzle team and should therefore provide enough hose into the structure to form a bow in the line. The bow represents the amount of slack that the nozzle team will be able to drag without too much effort as they move forward. The bow method should be employed even if a third fire fighter is not available and can be achieved by making a loop in the line shortly before it is charged. If the fire becomes a prolonged incident and more staff becomes available, it would be advisable to position fire fighters at positions where hose lines could snag or become damaged and have them assist with the unhindered movement of the attack teams.
Physical fitness
Sprinters don’t train the same way that marathon runners do. For every physical activity nowadays there is a specific training programme. Fire fighters who will often have to serve as attack teams need to train their bodies to adapt to the strain placed on them by this type of work. During the physically demanding task of dragging a fire hose through a burning structure, nozzle teams must use the opportunity to take very brief breaks whenever possible. They should also train to endure the stress of anaerobic activities and intersperse this with short rests in between. This will quickly recover the heart rate and allow muscles to recover. Adequate hydration is also crucial and staff on scene must be monitored for dehydration and exhaustion at all times.
Safety
Fire fighter safety should always be the first consideration before any interior crews are committed to a fire. In previous articles I have spoken at length about the need for effective and safe ventilation. Cooperation between the ventilation crew and the nozzle team is critical. If ventilation is attempted before an attack line is charged and ready, a very real possibility for rapid fire growth and an early flashover exists. If the ventilation is effected too long after the entry into the fire room is made, the nozzle team could face great difficulty in advancing the attack line and could be at the risk of injury.
Keeping doors open once entry has been achieved might sound simple but with everything going on in these areas, could be one of your biggest headaches. A closed door can sometimes act as a hose clamp and obstruct the flow of water when you least expect it. For this reason, every member of the attack team should carry a few door chocks with them that they will easily be able to wedge into the opening of a door hinge to ensure it stays open.
Also ensure that doorways and passages are, as far as possible, kept clear and unobstructed. This doesn’t only allow for safe movement but also permits the inflow of fresh air to replace the products of combustion being displaced by the water streams.
At all times nozzle teams must communicate their position in the building to the incident command and this must be noted. The monitoring of remaining air in your breathing apparatus will be your primary indicator of how far you can advance into the structure. Respect what your equipment can do and react early and promptly to any warnings that may ensue.
Remember: Don’t let your inclination to gamble override your ability to run.
Finally
This series of articles has focussed mainly on the rapid and effective deployment of fire hose into (mainly) residential structures. The objective is to respond to and prevent damage to people’s homes. The people we serve. When responding to a fire we normally encounter the owners or residents of the building involved in the fire. They expect us to be on top of our game and to put the fire out with as little damage to their property as possible. Therefore, in our training, our planning and our general approach to our job, we should concern ourselves primarily with this.