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7 February 2025
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Featured FRI Magazine article: Community risk reduction: Theories and models to promote fire prevention by Rodney Eksteen
https://www.frimedia.org/uploads/1/2/2/7/122743954/fri_vol_3_no_2.pdf
This week’s featured Fire and Rescue International magazine article is: Community risk reduction: Theories and models to promote fire prevention by Rodney Eksteen (FRI Vol 3 no 2). We will be sharing more technical/research/tactical articles from Fire and Rescue International magazine on a weekly basis with our readers to assist in technology transfer. This will hopefully create an increased awareness, providing you with hands-on advice and guidance. All our magazines are available free of charge in PDF format on our website and online at ISSUU. We also provide all technical articles as a free download in our article archive on our website.
Community risk reduction: Theories and models to promote fire prevention
By Rodney Eksteen
Community risk reduction programmes can help to improve the well-being and self-sufficiency of individuals, families, organisations and communities. But not all programmes and initiatives are equally successful. The programmes that are most likely to succeed are based on a clear understanding of the dynamics within an identified high risk community and the targeted high risk behaviours. The interventions are developed and managed using strategic planning models, and are continually improved through meaningful evaluation. Theories of human behaviour can play a critical role in improving fire prevention programmes.
This week’s featured Fire and Rescue International magazine article is: Community risk reduction: Theories and models to promote fire prevention by Rodney Eksteen (FRI Vol 3 no 2). We will be sharing more technical/research/tactical articles from Fire and Rescue International magazine on a weekly basis with our readers to assist in technology transfer. This will hopefully create an increased awareness, providing you with hands-on advice and guidance. All our magazines are available free of charge in PDF format on our website and online at ISSUU. We also provide all technical articles as a free download in our article archive on our website.
Community risk reduction: Theories and models to promote fire prevention
By Rodney Eksteen
Community risk reduction programmes can help to improve the well-being and self-sufficiency of individuals, families, organisations and communities. But not all programmes and initiatives are equally successful. The programmes that are most likely to succeed are based on a clear understanding of the dynamics within an identified high risk community and the targeted high risk behaviours. The interventions are developed and managed using strategic planning models, and are continually improved through meaningful evaluation. Theories of human behaviour can play a critical role in improving fire prevention programmes.
High risk behaviour
According to various studies, high risk behaviours in individuals that give rise to unwanted fire and injury are responsive to preventive intervention. Legislative policies, educational programmes, and changes in the physical and social environment have contributed to risk reduction behaviours in many countries.
Many of these examples highlight the necessity of combining behavioural and environmental approaches to fire prevention. The complexity of the fire problem in South Africa demands complementary rather than competitive prevention strategies.
In the following series of articles we will take a brief look at why it is important to identify the multiple levels of influence within the communities that we work in and how the individuals within those communities can be influenced and supported in adopting safer behaviours.
Integrating passive and active strategies
The two broad approaches of prevention include passive and active strategies. Passive (structural) approaches rely on changing the environment or products to make them safer, irrespective of the behaviour of the individuals eg fire sprinkler systems, vehicle airbags. Active (behavioural) approaches encourage or require people to take an active role in protecting themselves, despite the hazards in their environments eg fire escape drills, fire hazard inspections.
According to various studies, high risk behaviours in individuals that give rise to unwanted fire and injury are responsive to preventive intervention. Legislative policies, educational programmes, and changes in the physical and social environment have contributed to risk reduction behaviours in many countries.
Many of these examples highlight the necessity of combining behavioural and environmental approaches to fire prevention. The complexity of the fire problem in South Africa demands complementary rather than competitive prevention strategies.
In the following series of articles we will take a brief look at why it is important to identify the multiple levels of influence within the communities that we work in and how the individuals within those communities can be influenced and supported in adopting safer behaviours.
Integrating passive and active strategies
The two broad approaches of prevention include passive and active strategies. Passive (structural) approaches rely on changing the environment or products to make them safer, irrespective of the behaviour of the individuals eg fire sprinkler systems, vehicle airbags. Active (behavioural) approaches encourage or require people to take an active role in protecting themselves, despite the hazards in their environments eg fire escape drills, fire hazard inspections.
It is rarely feasible to prevent fire related injury by only focusing on passive strategies. Nearly every passive strategy will require some form of active behavioural response from individuals. For example, homeowners need to install and maintain smoke alarms; occupants alerted by a smoke alarm still need to find their way out to safety; once safely out, the fire department still needs to be activated telephonically. In addition, empowering individuals to take an active role in protecting themselves can lead to the political or social action necessary to achieve the structural changes that are necessary. This is called the active approach to passive protection.
This kind of strategy highlights the importance of combining behavioural and environmental approaches to fire prevention. Programmes using a combination of these interventions eg education, engineering, enforcement, have achieved significant success in reducing community risk from fire.
Ultimately, in order to successfully reduce this risk, our interventions must include behaviour change strategies in order to establish and maintain the appropriate safety behaviour by homeowners, parents, children, educators, decision makers, reporters as well as fire fighters.
The public are generally unaware of the effectiveness of specific fire prevention actions. This indicates the need for more effective public education regarding fire prevention. In addition, little attention is given to understanding the actual causes and influences affecting individual or community wide fire related behaviours or how to initiate and sustain the positive behaviour change that is required.
Fire prevention campaigns and activities often seem to be based on simplistic assumptions that changing people’s awareness about the fire problem will change their behaviour. This is often referred to as the ‘blanket’ approach, where the aim is to cover as wide an area or population as possible with the same message.
To be effective, selection of the most appropriate message must be situation specific and depends on the specific target audience, the setting, and the characteristics of the behaviour to be changed. The understanding and application of theoretical models that will enhance the success of prevention interventions is of utmost importance.
Systems approach (Ecological model)
The ecological model is a useful concept to help us understand the various levels within a community and how these levels are interconnected. It provides an organising framework that helps to systematically think about comprehensive approaches and the behaviour of multiple audiences. Systems thinking, which is the process of understanding how things influence one another within a whole, is central to ecological models. In this case, the system is the community.
Simply put, it illustrates the dynamic interaction between behaviour and the environment (social and physical) and conveys the idea of multiple levels of influence on both individual-level and community-level factors in shaping high risk and safety-related behaviours. In other words, the ecological model is not only beneficial in developing and implementing fire prevention programmes, but also in identifying and understanding the fire risk factors within the population.
Individuals are key agents in ecological systems and have several characteristics. For example, they are interdependent with other humans; they have an innate tendency to preserve and expand life, and have the capacity for behavioural variability.
This kind of strategy highlights the importance of combining behavioural and environmental approaches to fire prevention. Programmes using a combination of these interventions eg education, engineering, enforcement, have achieved significant success in reducing community risk from fire.
Ultimately, in order to successfully reduce this risk, our interventions must include behaviour change strategies in order to establish and maintain the appropriate safety behaviour by homeowners, parents, children, educators, decision makers, reporters as well as fire fighters.
The public are generally unaware of the effectiveness of specific fire prevention actions. This indicates the need for more effective public education regarding fire prevention. In addition, little attention is given to understanding the actual causes and influences affecting individual or community wide fire related behaviours or how to initiate and sustain the positive behaviour change that is required.
Fire prevention campaigns and activities often seem to be based on simplistic assumptions that changing people’s awareness about the fire problem will change their behaviour. This is often referred to as the ‘blanket’ approach, where the aim is to cover as wide an area or population as possible with the same message.
To be effective, selection of the most appropriate message must be situation specific and depends on the specific target audience, the setting, and the characteristics of the behaviour to be changed. The understanding and application of theoretical models that will enhance the success of prevention interventions is of utmost importance.
Systems approach (Ecological model)
The ecological model is a useful concept to help us understand the various levels within a community and how these levels are interconnected. It provides an organising framework that helps to systematically think about comprehensive approaches and the behaviour of multiple audiences. Systems thinking, which is the process of understanding how things influence one another within a whole, is central to ecological models. In this case, the system is the community.
Simply put, it illustrates the dynamic interaction between behaviour and the environment (social and physical) and conveys the idea of multiple levels of influence on both individual-level and community-level factors in shaping high risk and safety-related behaviours. In other words, the ecological model is not only beneficial in developing and implementing fire prevention programmes, but also in identifying and understanding the fire risk factors within the population.
Individuals are key agents in ecological systems and have several characteristics. For example, they are interdependent with other humans; they have an innate tendency to preserve and expand life, and have the capacity for behavioural variability.
Diagram 1: The systems (ecological) view of a community and the multiple levels of influence
Multiple levels of influence
Within this perspective, human behaviour is viewed as being affected by, and affecting, multiple levels of influence. Basically, behaviour both influences and is influenced by the social environment within a community. This multi-level, interactive perspective clearly shows the advantages of multi-level interventions, such as those that combine behavioural and environmental components (active and passive). Different intervention strategies and methods are available and must be integrated into an overall prevention strategy when working with individuals and communities.
Referring to diagram 1, the first level is the intrapersonal level, which refers to the influence of an individual’s knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs on his or her own behaviour. Individual knowledge and skill, perception and motivation (eg Maslow’s hierarchy of needs), attitudes and beliefs are relevant at this level.
Second is the interpersonal level, which refers to how people such as family members, friends, peers, co-workers and significant others can influence the individual’s behaviour. The social networks of the individual are an important influence important here.
Often the intra and interpersonal levels are simply designated the ‘individual level’. Interventions at this level could include activities incorporating educational programmes, counselling, skills development and training methods, door-to-door campaigns.
The next level is the organisational, which includes structures such as associations, institutions, workplaces, churches, preschools and others that have rules and regulations that can influence individuals and groups.
The community level includes a geographic or political jurisdiction and incorporates the individuals into a group that shares identity, values, norms and other societal influences. Social marketing campaigns are often used at this level.
Societal represents larger systems, such as political, that have power and some level of control over communities. Other large societal influences include economic, educational and social policies. Often policy development and implementation is used to influence change.
These three levels can be viewed collectively as the community level. Interventions that focus on the use of social marketing using the mass media, as well as coalition building, community development and poverty alleviation programmes are important.
Community risk reduction programmes will have a better chance of success when the problems are analysed and programmes are planned, keeping in mind the various levels of influence the ecological perspective comprises. The higher levels (community, societal) are more difficult to change but are more likely to be sustained when changed. For example, changing laws would be more difficult than changing an individual’s knowledge but when that law is enforced effectively over time, sustained behaviour change can occur.
Conclusion
Theories and models can help explain community and individual change processes so that we are better able to facilitate and support the changes necessary in communities and among the residents living in those communities. The ecological perspective can be used to identify potential points of intervention and emphasises two main options:
Thoughtful reflection can take you beyond being a public educator or fire protection officer. It can help you to step back and think about the bigger picture. This process of reflection can be extended to pretesting or actively discussing proposed strategies with the person, group, or community that is involved. An awareness of different behaviour theories and the ability to apply them skilfully in practice is what distinguishes a professional and a leader from someone simply carrying out a set of activities. However, the first rule and best advice to keep in mind is this: ‘THINK before you leap’
In the next issue we will take a look at some specific individual level theories and tactics to influence the necessary change in high risk behaviour.
Multiple levels of influence
Within this perspective, human behaviour is viewed as being affected by, and affecting, multiple levels of influence. Basically, behaviour both influences and is influenced by the social environment within a community. This multi-level, interactive perspective clearly shows the advantages of multi-level interventions, such as those that combine behavioural and environmental components (active and passive). Different intervention strategies and methods are available and must be integrated into an overall prevention strategy when working with individuals and communities.
Referring to diagram 1, the first level is the intrapersonal level, which refers to the influence of an individual’s knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs on his or her own behaviour. Individual knowledge and skill, perception and motivation (eg Maslow’s hierarchy of needs), attitudes and beliefs are relevant at this level.
Second is the interpersonal level, which refers to how people such as family members, friends, peers, co-workers and significant others can influence the individual’s behaviour. The social networks of the individual are an important influence important here.
Often the intra and interpersonal levels are simply designated the ‘individual level’. Interventions at this level could include activities incorporating educational programmes, counselling, skills development and training methods, door-to-door campaigns.
The next level is the organisational, which includes structures such as associations, institutions, workplaces, churches, preschools and others that have rules and regulations that can influence individuals and groups.
The community level includes a geographic or political jurisdiction and incorporates the individuals into a group that shares identity, values, norms and other societal influences. Social marketing campaigns are often used at this level.
Societal represents larger systems, such as political, that have power and some level of control over communities. Other large societal influences include economic, educational and social policies. Often policy development and implementation is used to influence change.
These three levels can be viewed collectively as the community level. Interventions that focus on the use of social marketing using the mass media, as well as coalition building, community development and poverty alleviation programmes are important.
Community risk reduction programmes will have a better chance of success when the problems are analysed and programmes are planned, keeping in mind the various levels of influence the ecological perspective comprises. The higher levels (community, societal) are more difficult to change but are more likely to be sustained when changed. For example, changing laws would be more difficult than changing an individual’s knowledge but when that law is enforced effectively over time, sustained behaviour change can occur.
Conclusion
Theories and models can help explain community and individual change processes so that we are better able to facilitate and support the changes necessary in communities and among the residents living in those communities. The ecological perspective can be used to identify potential points of intervention and emphasises two main options:
- Change the behaviour (active)
- Change the environment (passive)
Thoughtful reflection can take you beyond being a public educator or fire protection officer. It can help you to step back and think about the bigger picture. This process of reflection can be extended to pretesting or actively discussing proposed strategies with the person, group, or community that is involved. An awareness of different behaviour theories and the ability to apply them skilfully in practice is what distinguishes a professional and a leader from someone simply carrying out a set of activities. However, the first rule and best advice to keep in mind is this: ‘THINK before you leap’
In the next issue we will take a look at some specific individual level theories and tactics to influence the necessary change in high risk behaviour.