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22 March 2024
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Featured FRI Magazine article: Fires in residential complexes – storming the citadel by Colin Deiner (FRI Vol 2 no 1)
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https://www.frimedia.org/uploads/1/2/2/7/122743954/fri_vol2no1_low_res.pdf
This week’s featured Fire and Rescue International magazine article is: Fires in residential complexes – storming the citadel written
by Colin Deiner, Chief Director, Disaster management and Fire Brigade Services, Western Cape Government (FRI Vol 2 no 1). We will be sharing more technical/research/tactical articles from Fire and Rescue International magazine on a weekly basis with our readers to assist in technology transfer. This will hopefully create an increased awareness, providing you with hands-on advice and guidance. All our magazines are available free of charge in PDF format on our website and online at ISSUU. We also provide all technical articles as a free download in our article archive on our website.
Fires in residential complexes – storming the citadel
By Colin Deiner, Chief Director, Disaster management and Fire Brigade Services, Western Cape Government
It is a fact of life that South Africa currently has an unacceptably high crime rate. People’s concern about their and their family’s safety has led to them taking a variety of measures to ensure that they too do not become victims to the scourge of crime that currently prevails in many parts of the country.
One such a measure is to live in a residential complex with any number of security measures. The problem is that the very security offered by such complexes could itself constitute a serious risk in terms of fire safety and access.
Access controls, burglar proofing, narrow roads, to name a few, are some of numerous challenges faced by emergency services responding to fires in complexes. How do we deal with them? Hopefully what follows here will help you.
Access
Narrow lanes between housing units can cause the first serious access problem. If it is physically impossible to move a standard medium pumper into any position of tactical advantage, what are the chances of moving a twelve-metre ladder truck into position? Many upmarket complexes have taken to double-storey dwellings with sleeping accommodation upstairs and enough security downstairs to make Fort Knox look like a walk-in shopping mall. Another major problem (which exists not just in complexes but also in conventional housing structures) is roof construction (more of this later).
The most secure estates only have one point of access and exit, this is usually a security gate manned by guards on a twenty-four hour basis. There are various means of access; a tag mounted on a resident’s vehicle that can be read by a camera at the gate, allowing the vehicle to enter the premises, has become a very popular method.
Another means of access is a keypad system whereby a person wishing to enter the premises, punches in a certain code that either gives him access to the premises or connects him to the people living in the relevant unit; they then let him enter by means of a remote switch.
Should the latter system prevail, it is important that the emergency services formulate an agreement with the complex management to ensure unrestricted access in the event of emergencies.
In all of the above cases, a single point of entry severely limits the approach of responding units to a fire as well as the incident commander’s subsequent placement of his/her vehicles. He/she must ensure that all responding units can negotiate the narrow lanes leading to their objective.
Some roads inside complexes are, in many cases, single, one-way roads and barely wide enough to let a light motor vehicle through. Other vehicles parked in such a way that the lanes are even narrower frequently compound this problem.
When you consider that firefighting operations at a structure within a complex would involve stretching at least two lines for fire attack, one line to support ventilation, the utilisation of positive pressure ventilation, water supply to the first-in apparatus, removal of security barriers (burglar proofing) and exposure protection (because of the closeness of the structures to each other), the overall impact of access problems can be significant.
Forcible entry
Fortress-like conditions created by heavy-duty security barriers will delay initial operations and necessitate different tactics and additional resources. The most dangerous situation faced by fire fighters is the potential for entrapment presented by obstructed aggress points inside a heavily secured home. A home that has security barriers over every conceivable opening severely curtails both occupant escape and fire fighter egress. Such security measures must be viewed as a tragedy waiting to happen; their quick removal is the best defence against occupant and fire fighter entrapment.
Although most iron bars can be relocated by using hand-held prying or striking tools, the use of power tools is far less fatiguing and allows faster operation. Using a power saw on heavy-duty bars with multiple anchor points affords the advantage that, once enough anchor points have been removed, the bars can be pushed out of the way and the saw operator can move on to the next obstacle. When there are numerous barred openings, additional portable cutting tools such as torches and air-chisels can be used to speed up the operation and allow for multiple openings at various locations.
In previous articles, I have stressed the importance of having a balanced fire attack that in the main requires a “truck company” to support the hose teams inside the building by ensuring adequate ventilation and forcible entry, thereby ensuring movement of the hose teams that is not obstructed by smoke or structural elements. It is probably more crucial here than anywhere else. Incident commanders (or sector officers) must ensure that the interior hose teams are monitored and followed by the forcible entry teams on the outside and that escape routes are always available. This might require the forcible entry team to remove security barriers progressively as the hose team moves along towards the fire. This action will no doubt shock the more conservative incident commanders but it sure beats shining up those vintage fire trucks for a fire fighters funeral. Oh and don’t worry about the home owner, he will be too busy thanking you for saving his life.
It is important to try and leave windows intact when removing exterior mounted bars. This will increase visibility until the bars have been removed.
Hose handling
Initial laying of hose lines should be done in order to protect victims and fire fighters operating in exposed areas. Consider the possibility of using larger diameter interior hand lines for fires in heavily protected homes. Fires in homes with straight-room or open-plan layouts may offer this advantage. The ease of cornering and advancing with smaller hand lines would probably not be required. The return of the smooth bore nozzle a couple of years back has probably done more to improve interior firefighting than any other recent innovation. Consider placing a few on your first attack apparatus. Your knockdown potential will improve immeasurably.
Being part of the solution is always better than being part of the problem and limiting water damage should be one of our main priorities. Watching granny’s portrait floating out of the front door not only adds to the trauma of the affected family but also gives your department a bad name. Try to avoid it.
Communications
Communications must be set-up so that interior and exterior crews work together and not in opposition to each other. In the interior, when a search-and-rescue crew enters a room that has exterior window bars, they should inform the exterior crew so that the bars can be removed. By having the exterior crew move in unison with the interior crew, the interior fire fighters will know if conditions deteriorate or a victim is found and will be able to assist in the escape. It is important for all tasks to be accomplished in the right sequence.
Good tactical communications will also hopefully prevent the more nervous incident commanders among us from initiating an exterior attack while he/she still has teams working on the inside. There is nothing like “mode confusion” to get the guys on the inside talking to the guys on the outside about their mothers.
Rooms above ground level
Where the fire is in rooms above ground level, the removal of obstructions will obviously be slower and more difficult. Use of portable ladders at such dwellings should be, although personnel intensive, a priority. Any ladders used for entry must be left in place to be used as possible means of escape. And make sure that the top of a ladder is placed high enough to be easily visible in case it is needed in an emergency. There is no specific height specified that a ladder should protrude over a side of a roof. If you can see it, it’s the correct height.
When removing bars from locations above ground level, be sure that they will not injure anyone (or a ladder) when they are dropped to the ground and plan your ladder placement so that barrier removal can be accomplished with the minimum of movement.
As can be seen from the above, the rapid removal of anti-intrusion devices is a priority that has to be achieved rapidly and will occupy most of your exterior crew (truck company).
An ideal solution might well be to assign a rapid intervention company as part of the preplanning required for residential complexes. This company should address issues such as the identification of all necessary equipment, methods of getting that equipment to the fire building and forcible entry procedures.
Fire fighting
The moderate climate we enjoy in this country means that we don’t have to live under roofs especially constructed to combat extreme weather, which is why many dwellings in South Africa have roof constructions comprised of light wooden trusses that are joined by metal gussets and covered with clay tiles.
If, however, there is a fire and that fire spreads to the roof, such a roof is very likely to come down. The load carried by a light wooden truss structure will be sufficient under normal, non-fire conditions but the fact that the gusset plates holding the trusses together have very little heat tolerance and separate rather easily, plus the weight of the tiles, means that a roof collapse can be imminent within five minutes of intense exposure to fire.
Should a fire start in one room of a dwelling and burn intensely for a while, even if it is confined to just that room, it will eventually penetrate the ceiling and enter the roof void. When this happens, things turn really nasty.
Inside the roof void, the fire will find just what it is looking for: a large opening filled with air, plenty of dust, and a lot of light wooden trusses. The result is a boom! The roof comes down. In many cases, a geyser is mounted in the roof and will also fall to the ground. We have learned from experience that in the above scenario we usually have a 70% - 100% roof collapse.
Any incident commander committing hose-teams to the interior of such a structure should take careful note of both prevailing fire conditions and the progress of the fire. Committing crews to the roof at this point would simply be courting tragedy.
In the course of fighting numerous dwelling fires, we have found that a marginal interior attack by applying Class A foam to the affected roof void is, the most effective strategy. Certain tactics must, however, be followed during this attack:
• A team doing forcible entry and ventilation tasks must support hose teams.
• Applying Class A foam to the unaffected roof void limits the chances of the fire spreading and thus allows the removal of personnel who might otherwise have to take up dangerous positions to protect it.
• Good tactical communication is a priority. Again, the guys on the outside must know what the guys on the inside are doing; and the guys on the inside must know when to go on the defensive.
Most fire officers would agree that an offensive attack is the best way to deal with such situations. However, it is vital for the incident commander to project the time it will take for crews to implement the appropriate strategies and allow for changes to his initial plan should they not be achieved.
Available manpower, access and roof construction problems will all work against the incident commander at this stage and he/she will need to manage what time is available to the optimum. A good practice is for the command centre to transmit the incident time every ten minutes; it’s easy to lose track of time during a fire fighting operation. Objectives can then be measured and decisions made as to what strategy shifts are necessary.
Initial attack decision
The first arriving officer’s initial attack decision can make a critical difference to the outcome of any fire. This officer has to quickly evaluate the situation, choose the correct hose lines, determine the best access to the fire and expose hidden spaces as the initial attack-line is advanced. At the same time, the other crews should support this attack and check for fire extension.
It is uncommon for the first-in engine crew to have to use a combination of offensive and defensive tactics to contain, control and eventually extinguish a fire. It might also be necessary for hose teams to knock down the main body of fire from the outside and then, after assessing structural stability, follow it up with a controlled interior attack.
Should conditions worsen during an interior attack and the flashover risk become too great, crews should back out of the building and then attempt to knock down the main body of fire before returning to attempt another offensive attack. In addition, they must keep in mind the possibility of collapse, burn time, etc.
It is important always to ensure that everyone on the fire ground knows what the present strategy is and which position they should be in. Remember that surprises are only nice on your birthday.
The decision to go defensive will happen when neither the structure nor the occupants can be saved and must be made early enough to back crews out and away from the structure. While this is being done, outside lines must be set up for heavy streams to go into operation as soon as the interior crews are out. When getting heavy streams into operation, take care that they are safely directed. You may need a safety officer or spotter for this.
Nothing on a fire ground ever falls up, so always bear in mind the possibility of building collapse. The golden rule is, attack from the unburned side. The roof on that side will probably maintain sufficient integrity if the attack is started in the early stages of the fire.
Always be aware of what the roof is doing and which way to run when it starts doing it.
Incident critique
Upon completion of an incident, it is vital to critique the incident in all aspects as soon as possible. Critiquing the incident will help determine the lessons learned and reinforced and it is then up to us to put those lessons into a well-timed, integrated action plan.
When is the best time to critique? Many incident commanders would wait until they are back in the station and everyone has cleaned up and got comfortable with a cup of coffee in their hands and a white board in close proximity. This will work, however, it has been my experience that the best time to critique is immediate after a fire-stop message has been given and everyone is still on the fire ground. Ladders and hose lines should still be in place and the remains of any doors or windows that were forcibly entered will still be lying around (along with granny’s portrait). It is here where questions can be asked and the most honest answers received. “Ralph why did you place that ladder in the position it is in now?” or “Jimmy, please show us how you went about ventilating that roof?” will have much more meaning when the troops can actually see what you are referring to. Also, it takes away the opportunity for someone to think up excuses on the long ride back to the station.
Tactical truths
As surely as fire engines were meant to be red, there are certain elements to fighting fires; not only in residential complexes but any other structure. Here are some of our ideas:
• If the tactic doesn’t support the strategy, people will get hurt.
• Flashovers are a direct result of not having enough people.
• An unsupported attack is an unplanned attack and will lead to disaster.
• An engine without a supply line is just a 3 000-litre tanker.
• Your standard operating procedure (SOP) is your game plan. Play according to it.
Note: I wish to dedicate this article to an old friend who played a major role in helping develop our response to complex fires during my time as an operations officer in the Boksburg Fire Department in the late nineties. Many people will remember the late Jim Gargan from North Carolina, USA, who, on his frequent visits to South Africa during that time, inspired many of us to learn more about what we do and to love being fire fighters.
This week’s featured Fire and Rescue International magazine article is: Fires in residential complexes – storming the citadel written
by Colin Deiner, Chief Director, Disaster management and Fire Brigade Services, Western Cape Government (FRI Vol 2 no 1). We will be sharing more technical/research/tactical articles from Fire and Rescue International magazine on a weekly basis with our readers to assist in technology transfer. This will hopefully create an increased awareness, providing you with hands-on advice and guidance. All our magazines are available free of charge in PDF format on our website and online at ISSUU. We also provide all technical articles as a free download in our article archive on our website.
Fires in residential complexes – storming the citadel
By Colin Deiner, Chief Director, Disaster management and Fire Brigade Services, Western Cape Government
It is a fact of life that South Africa currently has an unacceptably high crime rate. People’s concern about their and their family’s safety has led to them taking a variety of measures to ensure that they too do not become victims to the scourge of crime that currently prevails in many parts of the country.
One such a measure is to live in a residential complex with any number of security measures. The problem is that the very security offered by such complexes could itself constitute a serious risk in terms of fire safety and access.
Access controls, burglar proofing, narrow roads, to name a few, are some of numerous challenges faced by emergency services responding to fires in complexes. How do we deal with them? Hopefully what follows here will help you.
Access
Narrow lanes between housing units can cause the first serious access problem. If it is physically impossible to move a standard medium pumper into any position of tactical advantage, what are the chances of moving a twelve-metre ladder truck into position? Many upmarket complexes have taken to double-storey dwellings with sleeping accommodation upstairs and enough security downstairs to make Fort Knox look like a walk-in shopping mall. Another major problem (which exists not just in complexes but also in conventional housing structures) is roof construction (more of this later).
The most secure estates only have one point of access and exit, this is usually a security gate manned by guards on a twenty-four hour basis. There are various means of access; a tag mounted on a resident’s vehicle that can be read by a camera at the gate, allowing the vehicle to enter the premises, has become a very popular method.
Another means of access is a keypad system whereby a person wishing to enter the premises, punches in a certain code that either gives him access to the premises or connects him to the people living in the relevant unit; they then let him enter by means of a remote switch.
Should the latter system prevail, it is important that the emergency services formulate an agreement with the complex management to ensure unrestricted access in the event of emergencies.
In all of the above cases, a single point of entry severely limits the approach of responding units to a fire as well as the incident commander’s subsequent placement of his/her vehicles. He/she must ensure that all responding units can negotiate the narrow lanes leading to their objective.
Some roads inside complexes are, in many cases, single, one-way roads and barely wide enough to let a light motor vehicle through. Other vehicles parked in such a way that the lanes are even narrower frequently compound this problem.
When you consider that firefighting operations at a structure within a complex would involve stretching at least two lines for fire attack, one line to support ventilation, the utilisation of positive pressure ventilation, water supply to the first-in apparatus, removal of security barriers (burglar proofing) and exposure protection (because of the closeness of the structures to each other), the overall impact of access problems can be significant.
Forcible entry
Fortress-like conditions created by heavy-duty security barriers will delay initial operations and necessitate different tactics and additional resources. The most dangerous situation faced by fire fighters is the potential for entrapment presented by obstructed aggress points inside a heavily secured home. A home that has security barriers over every conceivable opening severely curtails both occupant escape and fire fighter egress. Such security measures must be viewed as a tragedy waiting to happen; their quick removal is the best defence against occupant and fire fighter entrapment.
Although most iron bars can be relocated by using hand-held prying or striking tools, the use of power tools is far less fatiguing and allows faster operation. Using a power saw on heavy-duty bars with multiple anchor points affords the advantage that, once enough anchor points have been removed, the bars can be pushed out of the way and the saw operator can move on to the next obstacle. When there are numerous barred openings, additional portable cutting tools such as torches and air-chisels can be used to speed up the operation and allow for multiple openings at various locations.
In previous articles, I have stressed the importance of having a balanced fire attack that in the main requires a “truck company” to support the hose teams inside the building by ensuring adequate ventilation and forcible entry, thereby ensuring movement of the hose teams that is not obstructed by smoke or structural elements. It is probably more crucial here than anywhere else. Incident commanders (or sector officers) must ensure that the interior hose teams are monitored and followed by the forcible entry teams on the outside and that escape routes are always available. This might require the forcible entry team to remove security barriers progressively as the hose team moves along towards the fire. This action will no doubt shock the more conservative incident commanders but it sure beats shining up those vintage fire trucks for a fire fighters funeral. Oh and don’t worry about the home owner, he will be too busy thanking you for saving his life.
It is important to try and leave windows intact when removing exterior mounted bars. This will increase visibility until the bars have been removed.
Hose handling
Initial laying of hose lines should be done in order to protect victims and fire fighters operating in exposed areas. Consider the possibility of using larger diameter interior hand lines for fires in heavily protected homes. Fires in homes with straight-room or open-plan layouts may offer this advantage. The ease of cornering and advancing with smaller hand lines would probably not be required. The return of the smooth bore nozzle a couple of years back has probably done more to improve interior firefighting than any other recent innovation. Consider placing a few on your first attack apparatus. Your knockdown potential will improve immeasurably.
Being part of the solution is always better than being part of the problem and limiting water damage should be one of our main priorities. Watching granny’s portrait floating out of the front door not only adds to the trauma of the affected family but also gives your department a bad name. Try to avoid it.
Communications
Communications must be set-up so that interior and exterior crews work together and not in opposition to each other. In the interior, when a search-and-rescue crew enters a room that has exterior window bars, they should inform the exterior crew so that the bars can be removed. By having the exterior crew move in unison with the interior crew, the interior fire fighters will know if conditions deteriorate or a victim is found and will be able to assist in the escape. It is important for all tasks to be accomplished in the right sequence.
Good tactical communications will also hopefully prevent the more nervous incident commanders among us from initiating an exterior attack while he/she still has teams working on the inside. There is nothing like “mode confusion” to get the guys on the inside talking to the guys on the outside about their mothers.
Rooms above ground level
Where the fire is in rooms above ground level, the removal of obstructions will obviously be slower and more difficult. Use of portable ladders at such dwellings should be, although personnel intensive, a priority. Any ladders used for entry must be left in place to be used as possible means of escape. And make sure that the top of a ladder is placed high enough to be easily visible in case it is needed in an emergency. There is no specific height specified that a ladder should protrude over a side of a roof. If you can see it, it’s the correct height.
When removing bars from locations above ground level, be sure that they will not injure anyone (or a ladder) when they are dropped to the ground and plan your ladder placement so that barrier removal can be accomplished with the minimum of movement.
As can be seen from the above, the rapid removal of anti-intrusion devices is a priority that has to be achieved rapidly and will occupy most of your exterior crew (truck company).
An ideal solution might well be to assign a rapid intervention company as part of the preplanning required for residential complexes. This company should address issues such as the identification of all necessary equipment, methods of getting that equipment to the fire building and forcible entry procedures.
Fire fighting
The moderate climate we enjoy in this country means that we don’t have to live under roofs especially constructed to combat extreme weather, which is why many dwellings in South Africa have roof constructions comprised of light wooden trusses that are joined by metal gussets and covered with clay tiles.
If, however, there is a fire and that fire spreads to the roof, such a roof is very likely to come down. The load carried by a light wooden truss structure will be sufficient under normal, non-fire conditions but the fact that the gusset plates holding the trusses together have very little heat tolerance and separate rather easily, plus the weight of the tiles, means that a roof collapse can be imminent within five minutes of intense exposure to fire.
Should a fire start in one room of a dwelling and burn intensely for a while, even if it is confined to just that room, it will eventually penetrate the ceiling and enter the roof void. When this happens, things turn really nasty.
Inside the roof void, the fire will find just what it is looking for: a large opening filled with air, plenty of dust, and a lot of light wooden trusses. The result is a boom! The roof comes down. In many cases, a geyser is mounted in the roof and will also fall to the ground. We have learned from experience that in the above scenario we usually have a 70% - 100% roof collapse.
Any incident commander committing hose-teams to the interior of such a structure should take careful note of both prevailing fire conditions and the progress of the fire. Committing crews to the roof at this point would simply be courting tragedy.
In the course of fighting numerous dwelling fires, we have found that a marginal interior attack by applying Class A foam to the affected roof void is, the most effective strategy. Certain tactics must, however, be followed during this attack:
• A team doing forcible entry and ventilation tasks must support hose teams.
• Applying Class A foam to the unaffected roof void limits the chances of the fire spreading and thus allows the removal of personnel who might otherwise have to take up dangerous positions to protect it.
• Good tactical communication is a priority. Again, the guys on the outside must know what the guys on the inside are doing; and the guys on the inside must know when to go on the defensive.
Most fire officers would agree that an offensive attack is the best way to deal with such situations. However, it is vital for the incident commander to project the time it will take for crews to implement the appropriate strategies and allow for changes to his initial plan should they not be achieved.
Available manpower, access and roof construction problems will all work against the incident commander at this stage and he/she will need to manage what time is available to the optimum. A good practice is for the command centre to transmit the incident time every ten minutes; it’s easy to lose track of time during a fire fighting operation. Objectives can then be measured and decisions made as to what strategy shifts are necessary.
Initial attack decision
The first arriving officer’s initial attack decision can make a critical difference to the outcome of any fire. This officer has to quickly evaluate the situation, choose the correct hose lines, determine the best access to the fire and expose hidden spaces as the initial attack-line is advanced. At the same time, the other crews should support this attack and check for fire extension.
It is uncommon for the first-in engine crew to have to use a combination of offensive and defensive tactics to contain, control and eventually extinguish a fire. It might also be necessary for hose teams to knock down the main body of fire from the outside and then, after assessing structural stability, follow it up with a controlled interior attack.
Should conditions worsen during an interior attack and the flashover risk become too great, crews should back out of the building and then attempt to knock down the main body of fire before returning to attempt another offensive attack. In addition, they must keep in mind the possibility of collapse, burn time, etc.
It is important always to ensure that everyone on the fire ground knows what the present strategy is and which position they should be in. Remember that surprises are only nice on your birthday.
The decision to go defensive will happen when neither the structure nor the occupants can be saved and must be made early enough to back crews out and away from the structure. While this is being done, outside lines must be set up for heavy streams to go into operation as soon as the interior crews are out. When getting heavy streams into operation, take care that they are safely directed. You may need a safety officer or spotter for this.
Nothing on a fire ground ever falls up, so always bear in mind the possibility of building collapse. The golden rule is, attack from the unburned side. The roof on that side will probably maintain sufficient integrity if the attack is started in the early stages of the fire.
Always be aware of what the roof is doing and which way to run when it starts doing it.
Incident critique
Upon completion of an incident, it is vital to critique the incident in all aspects as soon as possible. Critiquing the incident will help determine the lessons learned and reinforced and it is then up to us to put those lessons into a well-timed, integrated action plan.
When is the best time to critique? Many incident commanders would wait until they are back in the station and everyone has cleaned up and got comfortable with a cup of coffee in their hands and a white board in close proximity. This will work, however, it has been my experience that the best time to critique is immediate after a fire-stop message has been given and everyone is still on the fire ground. Ladders and hose lines should still be in place and the remains of any doors or windows that were forcibly entered will still be lying around (along with granny’s portrait). It is here where questions can be asked and the most honest answers received. “Ralph why did you place that ladder in the position it is in now?” or “Jimmy, please show us how you went about ventilating that roof?” will have much more meaning when the troops can actually see what you are referring to. Also, it takes away the opportunity for someone to think up excuses on the long ride back to the station.
Tactical truths
As surely as fire engines were meant to be red, there are certain elements to fighting fires; not only in residential complexes but any other structure. Here are some of our ideas:
• If the tactic doesn’t support the strategy, people will get hurt.
• Flashovers are a direct result of not having enough people.
• An unsupported attack is an unplanned attack and will lead to disaster.
• An engine without a supply line is just a 3 000-litre tanker.
• Your standard operating procedure (SOP) is your game plan. Play according to it.
Note: I wish to dedicate this article to an old friend who played a major role in helping develop our response to complex fires during my time as an operations officer in the Boksburg Fire Department in the late nineties. Many people will remember the late Jim Gargan from North Carolina, USA, who, on his frequent visits to South Africa during that time, inspired many of us to learn more about what we do and to love being fire fighters.
